common name: southern pine coneworm
scientific name: Dioryctria amatella (Hulst) (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Introduction - Distribution - Identification - Biology - Host Plants - Damage - Management - Selected References

Introduction

The southern pine coneworm, Dioryctria amatella (Hulst), also commonly referred to as a pitch moth, is consistently one of the most damaging insect pests of pine seed orchard crops throughout the southeastern United States (Ebel et al. 1980). Less well-recognized is that this widespread and frequently occurring insect also attacks a variety of other parts of pines (Pinus spp.) besides cones. Caterpillars can be found feeding on and in buds, male and female flowers, shoots, branches and stems of all ages and sizes, as well as in conelets (i.e., first-year cones) and second- year cones (Ebel 1965, Ebel et al. 1980, Goolsby et al. 1972).

adult and larva

The prevalence and variety of D. amatella infestations on forest and shade trees pines throughout the state periodically generates concern over the nature and impact of its injuries. The most noticeable symptom of infestations is large external masses of pitch exuding from the feeding sites of caterpillars, hence the name "pitch moth." Reddish-brown frass may also be evident at feeding sites and is often mixed with resin. Pitch masses caused by D. amatella may resemble those of the black turpentine beetle (BTB), Dendroctonus terebrans (Oliv.); however, the coneworm pitch masses are usually larger, more irregularly shaped and flow for months. BTB pitch masses are typically less than 25 mm in diameter, have an obvious entrance hole, solidify in weeks, and are concentrated on the lower bole of large trees (Barnard and Dixon 1983, Goolsby et al. 1972).

In addition to reproductive structures, susceptible host material includes: trees under stress, mechanically injured stems or branches, elongating shoots of long leaf (P. palustris Mill.) and slash pine (P. elliottii Englem.) during the spring, graft and branch unions, conelets infected with the southern cone rust fungus (Cronartium strobilinum (Arth. ) Hedge & Hahn) and especially galls caused by the fusiform rust fungus (Cronartium quercuum (Berk.) Miyabe ex Shirai f. sp. fusiforme) (Barnard and Dixon 1983, Ebel et al. 1981, Goolsby et al. 1972). Other than the potentially significant losses that can occur in seed orchards due to the destruction of flowers, conelets and cones, damage is rarely severe or lethal to trees. The girdling effect of caterpillar feeding, however, can cause dieback of branches, terminals and tree tops, and additional weakening of previously damaged sterns (Barnard and Dixon 1983). Feeding injuries also serve as infection courts for the pitch canker fungus, Fusarium subglutinans (Wollenw .and Reinking) Nelson, Toussoun and Aarasas (Foltz and Blakeslee 1989).

Distribution

D. amatella occurs throughout Florida and likely can be found wherever its pine hosts are growing. The natural range of the insect extends across the southeastern U.S., from Maryland south to Florida and west into Texas (Ebel et al. 1980).

Identification

D. amatella is one of six species of pine coneworrns found in Florida. Others include: the blister coneworrn (D. clarioralis (Walker)), the webbing coneworrn (D. disclusa Heinrich), the south coastal coneworrn (D. ebeli Mutuura & Monroe), the loblolly pine coneworrn (D. merkeli Mutuura & Monroe), and the lesser loblolly pine coneworrn (D. taedivorella Neunzig & Leidy) (Ebel et al. 1980). A seventh species, the bald cypress coneworrn (D. pygmaeella Ragonot), is only known on junipers and cypress. D. amatella can be distinguished from these other species by the distinct characteristics of adults and larvae, and often via differences in damage and biology.

adult

Adult moths of D. amatella have a wingspan of 27 to 32 mm, with dark grey, to brown, to nearly black forewings boldly patterned with multiple contrasting white patches and zig-zag crossbands. The hindwings are nearly uniformly light grey to tan in color. Larvae range from 1.5 mm upon hatching, to ca. 25 mm at maturity. When young, their bodies are nearly white with seven longitudinal stripes and a brown head. Older larvae are colored a dark reddish to purplish brown above and are a paler whitish green on the underside. Abdominal segments exhibit obvious beadlike patterns of small black pits and dark elevated setal bases (Ebel et al. 1980).

mature larva

Biology

In Florida, the southern pine coneworm produces from one to four generations per year, depending on whether larval diapause occurs during the spring, early summer, or at all. The resulting abundant overlap of life stages among generations typically yields varying degrees of adult moth activity from early April through early November in North Florida (Merkel and Fatzinger 1971). The insect overwinters predominantly as early instar larvae, at the base of persistent cones, under bud scales and in fusiform galls on branches and sterns. As larvae become active in January, they may continue to feed in overwintering sites or often migrate to feed on developing male and female flowers and vegetative buds. Following flower and bud feeding, larvae usually migrate a second time, infesting expanding shoots or young second-year cones during early spring. Once in shoots, larvae may undergo diapause, complete their development or migrate again to young second-year cones. When larvae eventually pupate, D. amatella is the only pine coneworm in the South that does so within infested material (Ebel 1965).

In April and May, the next generation of caterpillars readily infests conelets infected with southern cone rust, as well as healthy second-year cones. These larvae, as well those of subsequent generations, also may migrate from infested to uninfested cones before pupating. Later generations continue to infest second-year cones from summer through fall (Ebel 1965). This relatively complex cycle is depicted in figure below.

life cycle

Host Plants

All species of Pinus native to the state are utilized as hosts by D. amatella. This list includes: loblolly (P. taeda L.), longleaf, pond (P. serotina Michx.), sand (P. clausa (Chapm. ex Englem.)), shortleaf (P. echinata Mill.), slash and spruce (P. glabra Walt.) pines. Virginia pine, P. virginiana Mill., which is sometimes ill advisedly grown in Florida for Christmas trees, is often infested by D. amatella. Eastern white pine, P. strobus L., is the only Pinus spp. which occurs in Florida that is not a suitable host (Ebel et al. 1980). Within slash pine, and probably other host species, individual trees exhibit pronounced differences in their inherent degree of susceptibility or resistance to D. amatella infestations (Merkel et al. 1965).

Damage

In cones, larval feeding causes damage ranging from evident tunnels to wholly excavated cavities within, resulting in partial to complete seed loss of infested individuals (Ebel et al. 1980). Other forms of damage are pictured, in part, in images below. Foltz and Blakeslee (1989) found that the abundance of D. amatella infestations in young, experimental slash pine plantations increased with the intensity of applied cultural practices (e.g., fertilization, competition control, and irrigation); and in the late 1990s, a four year-old long leaf plantation on a scalped agricultural field in Lafayette County exhibited an estimated 5% terminal dieback due to shoot infestations. The unknown ramifications of trends towards more intensive, high-yield management of many loblolly, slash and long leaf plantations may alter the pest status and management considerations for D. amatella in the future.

mature larva in cone

damage to mature cone

damage to an immature cone

bud and shoot damage

attack on pruning wounds

Management

Various insecticides are currently registered for and routinely used in intensively managed pine seed orchards to successfully prevent and/or minimize seed losses due to coneworms. The presence and timing of D. amatella and most other coneworms can be determined by using commercially available pheromone lures and traps. Without the use of insecticides in an integrated pest management system, seed orchards in North Florida could expect to annually lose between 20 to 40% of their crop to coneworms (Goolsby et al. 1972). In most conventional forestry and shade tree settings, there is little practical potential for insecticide use due to: the random nature of attacks, the inability of most insecticides to control existing infestations, the relatively limited impact of damage, and the high cost-benefit ratio.

Insect Management Guide for commercial forest trees
Insect Management Guide for pine seed orchards

Recommended management strategies include promoting and maintaining tree health and vigor, and removal and destruction of seriously infested and/or rust infected stems and branches. Avoid mechanical injuries to branches and stems because of D. amatella's attraction to volatiles emanating from wounds (Hanula et al. 1985). In Florida, eight species of Hymenoptera (three braconids, three ichneumonids and two eulophids) and two species of tachinid flies have been reported as natural enemies of D. amatella larvae or pupae. It appears, however, that the combined impact of these parasitoids is not enough to substantially reduce or control populations of this coneworm (Belmont and Habeck 1983, Ebel 1965).

Selected References

Author: James R. Meeker, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Forestry.
Originally published as DPI Entomology Circular 393.
Graphic: Hedlin et al. 1981
Photographs: Harry O. Yates III, Larry R. Barber and Bernard H. Ebel, USDA Forest Service; R. Scott Cameron, International Paper; Andrew J. Boone, South Carolina Forestry Commission
Project Coordinator: Thomas R. Fasulo, University of Florida
Publication Number: EENY-325
Publication Date: May 2004
Copyright 2004 University of Florida

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